Spectrophotometric analysis of a penny free essay sample

Once we have gathered that information, we will use the results in the other two experiments. The purpose of the second experiment is to obtain a calibration curve based on different concentrations and absorptions. The purpose of the last experiment is to determine the copper content in a penny. Pennies minted in the United States no longer contain pure copper metal. This change was due to the fact that the cost of copper metal required to produce a penny was higher than the face value of the penny. Pennies now consist of a copper coating on a core that contains primarily zinc metal. The percentage of copper in a penny is now about 2. 5% We will also be dealing with complex ions. Complex ions are formed by the bonding of a metal atom to two or more ligands by coordinate covalent bonds. A ligand is a neutral molecule attached to the central metal ion in a complex ion. We will write a custom essay sample on Spectrophotometric analysis of a penny or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the simplest term, complex ion has a metal ion at its center with a number of other molecules or ions surrounding it. Many of these are highly colored due to their ability to absorb light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the first experiment, we will first dissolve a penny in a concentrated solution of nitric acid, HNO3. In aqueous solution, most of the first-row transition metals form octahedral complex ions with water as their ligands as shown for copper: Cu(s) + 4 HNO3(aq) + 4 H2O(l) Cu(H2O)62+(aq) + 2 NO2(g) + 2 NO3-(aq) Once our penny has been dissolved, we will then convert the aquated copper complex ions to their tetraamine complex ions : Cu(H2O)62+(aq) + 4 NH3(aq) Cu(NH3)42+(aq) + 6 H2O(l) We will then be allowed to detect the presence of Cu(NH3)42+ ion by its characteristic deep-blue color, and you can measure its intensity with a spectrophotometer as a way to determine the percentage of copper in a penny. Since copper is a transitional metal, it has colored compounds due their partially filled d orbitals. To better explain how the blue color is emitted, a white light hits a transition metal compound and a certain color of radiation is absorbed. The absorption of energy excites the electrons and splits up the electrons in the d orbitals. This is called the splitting of the d orbitals. As we learned in a previous lab called electromagnetic spectrum, the electrons are unstable at their excited state so they must come back down to their original state. When the electrons go back to their original state, they release the energy absorbed as light. Since copper absorbs yellow radiation, the color it emits is commentary to the radiation color. In this case, since blue is opposite from yellow on the color wheel, blue will be the color visible to the human eye. To do this part of the experiment, we must construct a calibration curve that relates the measured absorbance, A, to known concentrations of Cu(NH3)42+ ion using the Beer-Lambert Law: A = a? b? c The Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beers law or the Lambert–Beer law or the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law (named after August Beer, Johann Heinrich Lambert, and Pierre Bouguer) relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. It is the linear relationship between absorbance and concentration of an absorber of electromagnetic radiation. The law states that there is a logarithmic dependence between the transmission of light through a substance and the product of the absorption coefficient of the substance, and the distance the light travels through the material. In simplest terms, Beer’s Law is a physical law stating that the quantity of light absorbed by a substance dissolved in a non-absorbing solvent is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance and the path length of the light. In order to get a calibration curve, you will need to plot your points and get the best fit line. This will give you a slope. The slope is the molar absorptivity constant because it is related to absorbance and concentration. When you plot five concentrations and absorbance readings, you can determine the molar absorptivity constant. The calibration curve will allow us to solve for x using the given Beer’s Law formula. In this experiment, we will be using percent yields instead of theoretical yields. A percent yield is the end results you get after preforming an experiment. The method to find the percent error is to subtract the theoretical yield from the experimental yield and divide your answer by the theoretical yield and multiply by 100%. This will be used to calculate how much copper was in the penny we are dissolving. % error = | your result accepted value | x 100 % accepted value Procedure: As stated in the lab manual 1. Obtain a penny minted, and RECORD the physical properties mass, thickness, diameter, year minted, city minted (D or P), appearance of penny) in your data table. Place your penny in a 100 mL or 150 mL beaker and label the beaker; and obtain a watch glass to rest on top of the beaker. 2. In the fume hood you will measure out 20 mL of 8 M HNO3 in a graduated cylinder and add it to the beaker containing the penny. Cover the beaker with the watch glass. The reaction of the copper and zinc metals in the penny with HNO3 is quite vigorous so you will not need to stir the reaction. RECORD your observations of the reaction, and allow the reaction to go to completion in the fume hood. 3. Fill a 100 mL volumetric flask approximately half way with distilled water. In the fume hood, add your HNO3 – penny solution. Add distilled water to the mark, cover the flask and invert several times to mix. 4. Obtain a clean 10 mL volumetric flask, and using a 1 mL volumetric pipet, transfer 0. 80 mL of the penny solution. 5. In the fume hood, add about 0.8 mL of 15 M NH3 carefully from the buret until the light-blue precipitate that initially forms dissolves and a deep-blue solution results. Then, fill the flask to the mark with distilled water, cover and invert several times to mix. 6. Using the same procedure you did for the standard solutions, measure the absorbance of the solution. 7. Repeat steps 16 through 19 two more times. These results f rom each trial should be very close to each other. Record these values in your data table. 8. Discard the remaining solutions in the labeled waste container in the fume hood. Rinse the flasks with small portions of tap water and discard the rinses. Data: Part I Wavelength (nm) Absorption (A) Wavelength (nm) Absorption (A) 440 .45 580 1. 350 3 .100 600 1. 420 480 .226 620 1. 440 500 .400 640 1. 360 520 .628 660 1. 230 540 .925 680 1. 100 560 1. 170 700 .955 Wavelength with maximum absorbance on spectrophotometer (nm) 620 Part II Concentration of copper (II) nitrate solution (M) Wavelength setting on the spectrophotometer (nm) Flask mL 0. 40 M Cu2+ Distilled H2O (mL) Concentration Absorbance of Cu(NH3)42+ 1 .2 9 .004m .282 2 .4 9. 2 .008m.528 3 .6 9. 4 .012m .825 4 .8 9. 6 .016m 1. 090 5 1. 0 9. 8 .02m 1. 380 Properties of the penny Mass (g) Thickness (nm) Diameter (nm) 2. 502 g 1. 1 nm 19. 02 nm Year City 1984 Denver Trial Absorbance Average Absorbance 1 .106 .092 2 .079 3 .092 Appearance of reacted penny/ammonia solution: The appearance of the penny that reacted with the ammonia solution went from a brown copper color to a blue/green color. While it was d issolving, there brown smoke like gas forming at the top of the lid. The bottom of the flask also got very hot to the touch. Data Analysis: 1. Plot absorbance (y-axis) versus the concentration of the Cu(NH3)42+ ion from part II. Add a best fit line (trend line) and determine the slope of the line. Print the graph in â€Å"portrait† orientation and attach as page 2. Show that the slope of the line is equal to the molar absorptivity, a, of the Cu(NH3)42+ ion at this wavelength. Include proper units. Slope: 65. 94 concentration/absorbance 2. From the average absorbance of your penny samples, and the line equation from your standard curve, calculate the concentration of the Cu(NH3)42+ ion in your sample from the penny. The ammonia molecules attach slowly, and in between each attachment, there is a chemical equilibrium. The more ammonia is added, the more complex is formed, as the equilibrium is pushed to the product side. The blue color is the result of the complex absorbing light in the visible light spectrum, and having a concentration high enough for the eyes to detect. 7. If the atomic radius of a copper atom is 1. 28 x 10-8 cm, how many atoms thick is the copper coating on your penny? R = 1. 28 x 10^-8 cm (2) = d = 2. 56 x 10^-8 cm Thickness in atoms = 9. 11 x 10^-4 cm/ 2. 56 x 10^-8 = 35623. 8 atoms Error Analysis: 8. What assumptions were made in the experiment and in the calculations? We assumed that the reaction would go to completion and that we would get a close to accurate calculation. 9. Research the actual percent copper in a penny. Calculate your percent error for the percent of copper in the penny. Comment on any significant sources of error. l1. 8-2. 5/2. 5l x 100%=28% error Conclusion: Up to mid-1982, cents were about 98% copper. Since our penny was made in 1984, it had a low percentage of copper contained in it. The rest was made out of tin and/ or zinc depending on the year of issue. In the middle of 1982 the price of copper shot up so the mint changed to coin’s composition to pure zinc core with a plating of copper so that the color would be identical to prior issues. The copper plating makes up about 2. 5% of the coin’s weight. Since our copper came to 1. 9%, we concluded that the experiment was done correctly minus a few errors. Discussion: Our experiment went really well considering our copper percentage was close to that of the actual percentage. Although we had a 28% error, it could have been accounted for during the experiment. There was a possibility that we did not measure our penny accurately or that we did not let the reaction go to 100% completion. Overall our data was sufficient and our results proved we performed the experiment correctly. Questions: N/A MSDS: Chemical Names: Nitric acid Formula: HNO3 Molecular Wt: 63. 01 Clear, colourless or yellowish liquid with an acrid, suffocating odour. Hygroscopic. Will not burn. During a fire, nitric acid decomposes with the release of corrosive nitrogen oxide gases. Closed containers may develop pressure on prolonged exposure to heat. STRONG OXIDIZER. Contact with combustible and easily oxidizable materials may result in fire and/or explosion. Highly reactive. May react violently or explosively and/or ignite spontaneously with many organic and inorganic chemicals. Releases extremely flammable hydrogen gas on contact with many metals, particularly in powered form. Generates heat when mixed with water. Nitric acid poses a very serious inhalation hazard. Symptoms of exposure include dryness of the nose and throat, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath and difficulty breathing. Causes lung injury-effects may be delayed. CORROSIVE to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract. Causes severe burns. May cause permanent eye injury or blindness and permanent scarring. Chemical Name: Ammonia, Anhydrous Synonyms: Ammonia Formula: NH3 MOL. WT. : 17. 03(NH3) Ammonia is an irritant and corrosive to the skin, eyes, respiratory tract and mucous membranes. May cause severe burns to the eyes, lungs and skin. Skin and respiratory related diseases could be aggravated by exposure. Additional References: Spectrophotometric Analysis of A Penny Lab http://www2. volstate. edu/chem/1110/CopperClad. htm Clark, J. (2003). An introduction to complex metal ions. Retrieved from http://www. chemguide. co. uk/inorganic/complexions/whatis. html

The Relationship Between Epistemology and Metaphysics Essay Essays

The Relationship Between Epistemology and Metaphysics Essay Essays The Relationship Between Epistemology and Metaphysics Essay Paper The Relationship Between Epistemology and Metaphysics Essay Paper In many ways epistemology clears the manner for metaphysical building or hypothesis. By adhering to the rules of one subdivision of doctrine. it allows us to go better at seeking within the other. It is true that epistemological thoughts are frequently knocked down by metaphysics. but when one considers that it is wholly possible to establish metaphysical thoughts on epistemology. it becomes clear that the subdivisions of doctrine are really much intertwined and slightly mutualist upon each other for lucidity and ground. It is a unusual philosophical mutualism from which a magnificent and new being emerges. We know that the end of metaphysics is to somehow develop an across-the-board hypothesis as to what the ultimate nature of the existence is and world itself. The human head being the manner it is. will non accept any of the possibilities unearthed by metaphysical oppugning unless it is in portion rationalized by epistemological enquiry. For illustration. the old inquiry about the tree falling in the forests. would it still do sound if no 1 was at that place to hear it? Well scientific discipline and its epistemological thirst for cognition has solved that inquiry by uncovering the being of sound moving ridges. which would be at that place irrespective of the emptiness of the forests. Or has it? On the surface epistemology seems to hold solved the inquiry but the fact is metaphysically talking it has non been solved at all because the inquiry was about the nature of world itself. and whether or non the world of the tree falling would even be if there was no 1 to see it. Would the existence merely withdraw the part itself that was non being experienced by anyone? This inquiry can non be answered by either subdivision. but perchance by a combination of the two. With respects to epistemology. the universe really exists as a series of images. thoughts and concrete signifiers that can be interacted with. Yet despite the nonsubjective mentions that are this universe. it still can non be explained or even researched in an epistemological manner without first meeting some profound inquiries which in bend lead to farther quandary. The inquiry as to how one grounds is one such quandary. yet this inquiry and the myriad possibilities that arise from it falls partly in the sphere of metaphysics. Epistemology. in order to map as it is supposed to. must accept that cognition can be communicated and that world is a measure that can be known. at least to some extent. Because there must be an implicit in similarity between persons in order be able to pass on this cognition. so there must be at some degree a similarity between human heads and that means that the constructs tied up in metaphysics must be linked to epistemology. This unusual dualism does non take away from either construct ; so it really enhances each one. By giving up dependance on the construct of uninterrupted world. something outside scientific discipline. epistemology does non release nonsubjective truth ; alternatively it grabs holds of it even more tightly and wraps itself up in the dualism created by its mutualism with metaphysics. The nucleus constructs espoused by both of these subdivisions of doctrine are non at bosom incompatible. in fact we see that the antonym is rather true. Merely as the foundation of epistemological enquiry is the belief in the being of things. it is merely disposed that it should be counterbalanced by metaphysics. which inquiries that really existence. Without this both subdivisions would be in provinces of instability. There is a correlativity within and between epistemology and metaphysics which clearly demonstrates a relationship of mutuality between these nucleus constructs of doctrine. Conventionally there is believed to be a crisp differentiation between them. but at close scrutiny it becomes clear that these two subdivisions of doctrine far from being distant signifier each other are really elaborately intertwined. It is hence of import when going down either of these waies of wisdom to non merely tread lightly. but with our caput turned in the way of the other facet because with each of them steadfastly taking our custodies as we travel. we are apt to go baffled and lose our manner.

Humanities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Humanities - Essay Example When the Babylonians of Semitic origins invaded Mesopotamia near the end of 2000 BC, as the civilization reached its imperial turning point, these ancient Amorites bore significance on the aspect of science through the belief of over sixty thousand gods. Babylonian priests discerned much about the stars and other heavenly bodies and profoundly believed beyond mere embodiment that every planet was a god – Jupiter being Marduk, the god of war, Mars pertaining to Nergal or the god of death for instance, as well as the sun that was also known as Shamash (Babylonian). Religion thus enabled Babylonians to earn recognition in the field of astronomy and astrology which helped establish the twelve zodiac signs on which most cultures to this day depend, accepting the possibility that man’s destiny can be governed by the stars and the planets (Babylonian). In the similar manner, the Egyptian history had documented a belief system which shaped the early minds to materialize cultura l and architectural insights into physical structures crafted according to the religion which regarded truth in life after death. Hence, Egyptians have since managed to live with a burial custom that bathed and embalmed corpses, widely known as ‘mummies’ which were then entombed in pyramids – a tradition thought to prepare the dead for life in another dimension (Resurrection).

About the lottery and contemporary tradition Essay

About the lottery and contemporary tradition - Essay Example It seems reasonable that â€Å"The Lottery† should be existed because it provides a comparative scenario of the contemporary tradition, later is much better than the previous. However, The Lottery is a representative to all the cruel traditions that are passed from generation to another in an unquestionable acceptance. The short story tries to demonstrate the importance of traditions in a particular society, especially by showing the importance of maintaining the culture. The author achieves her notions by using the cruelty aspects of cultural practices and rituals, in a periodic exercise that illustrates the loyalty of the people to the traditions. In this case, the short story depicts the historical event that has been conducted in the previous years consecutively. Therefore, this paper aims to demonstrate the way The Lottery shows why it is important for having traditional maintainability and royalty in a given cultural practice. The first reason is the way the short story shows the importance of contemporary tradition that helps the people in having self-awareness. The Lottery illustrates the historical existence of the traditions in a given cultural diversity. However, the consecutive conduction of the rituals creates self-awareness to the people on the dangers posed by following a tradition blindly. Jackson had a motive of creating a sensible thinking to the people in their efforts of practicing rituals that may affect their livelihood or even cost the lives for the people in the community. The Lottery was sometimes viewed as a modern aspect of refreshing the traditional rituals to conform to the changing world, especially by demonstrating the negative impacts caused by maintaining the traditional practices. In this case, The Lottery was perceived to reflect or encourage the modern way of living by avoiding or improving the traditional rituals. The story demonstrates the importance of adopting other cultural practices into the

American Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Policing - Essay Example was characterized by crime control, efficient organization, professional remoteness from the community, hiring of competent and qualified personnel in curbing police inefficiency, and it stressed on preventive rapid and motorized response to crime. Police officers standardized and routinized police work, officers were mandated to enforce law and make arrests whenever they could. Further, when specific problems arose, special police units such as tactical or juvenile were established to deal with the issues rather than giving problems to patrol officers (Cole & Smith, 2004). These characteristics squared with those principles suggested by Robert Peel in that, they emphasized on the importance of preventing crime and disorder in society. In addition, during the professional era of policing, the stressed on the need of public approval to be efficient and effective which are in agreement with Robert’s tenets of policing. In addition, if the police used force in enforcing law and order, the degree of cooperation with the public declines. In addition, the police must obtain the willing cooperation of the people to respect and obey the law in order to get respect of the public. Further, the police are allowed to apply force only after using all other means to get compliance from law breakers. Lastly, the police just like other members of the public too belong to the public who are discharging their service to secure the welfare of the society or public (Cole & Smith, 2004). Community oriented policing was created as a result of increase in crime. The community oriented policing brings government officials, community, professionals and neighborhood together to trace and solve problems within community and partner together to solve these problems. The concept of community policing was created to reunite the community by reducing crime and fear in society. The interaction between the police and the community can help reduce fear and crime in society. Community policing

Development of Primary Health Organizations in New Zealand

Development of Primary Health Organizations in New Zealand Body The delivery of healthcare services to the people in every nation had always been a problem for the government considering there are a lot of factors affecting its delivery. New Zealand is an example of a government which delivers healthcare to its citizens and permanent residents through public subsidies and private insurance. Even with the help of private insurance, there still exist a number of problems faced by the government. These problems revolve in the availability and accessibility of healthcare services. New Zealand has its concerns and these barriers to healthcare can be categorized into four: economic barriers, utilisation and socio-economic status, interplay of material, cultural and geographic factors, and the implications for the wider health system (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). All of these factors have had an implication in the shaping of the national healthcare policy. The social and economic inequality within New Zealand has widen substantially, thus new initiatives have been made to address such problems. The government has learned its lessons from the previous health system and is now undergoing constant changes and improvements. The policy formulated is now more focused on cooperative over competitive models of service provision and giving emphasis on the delivery of primary care as the key in achieving its goal of health for all and as a sign of overall improvement in the health system (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Ref: Barnett, R., Barnett, P. (April 3, 2003). Primary Health Care in New Zealand: Problems and Policy Approaches. Retrieved from https://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-policy-journal/spj21/21-primary-health-care-in-new-zealand-pages49-66.html Evidence of New Zealand’s attempts to develop better equitable policies was the implementation of New Zealand Health Strategy and Primary Health Care Strategy (Minister of Health, 2001). The former had anticipated new arrangements and have chosen district health boards (DHBs) to implement these new policies. Within the charter of DHBs is the Primary Health Care Strategy (more recent) that suggests new organisational structures. This newly proposed structure is known as primary health organisations (PHOs), to solve problems relating to accessibility and availability in the provision of healthcare services. Moreover, primary health organisations address the lack of co-ordination between health providers. Although the district health boards (DHBs) are well established and setting up of Primary health organisations is going well, there still lies uncertainty about achieving equity in the provision of health (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Economic Barriers to Primary Health Care in New Zealand Just like in many other developed countries, the economic restructuring in New Zealand and the abolishment welfare state had led to the increase incidence of poverty (Waldegrave et al. 1995, Jamieson 1998) and socio-economic disparities in health (Ministry of Health, 2000). In the beginning with the legislation of Social Security in 1938, medical services have been provided as free of service to the people through government subsidies. However, it is also true that the subsidies did not cover 100% of the total cost of patient care. At first the effect to the masses was minor during 1970s where there is â€Å"long boom† of prosperity in New Zealand. Then again, in 1980 the utilisation of the GP and other health services from the ethnic groups, including the positive class are diminishing due to the economic restructuring and growing cost of doctor fees (Gribben 1992, Barnett and Kearns 1996). Utilisation and Socio-Economic Status The utilisation of health services according to socio-economic status is mixed in New Zealand. A recent survey from the National Health Survey 1996/97 (Ministry of Health 1999) reports that people with low-income status are more likely to have a higher frequency of visits to General Practitioner than families from a more affluent areas or people with a higher income. However, the results from the survey shows that people living in a less well-off area have a late seeking behaviour and less visits to GPs because of cost. Key results from the survey are as follows: People had continued to express their dissatisfaction towards the cost of GP fees. The percentage of patients who considered the GPs fee expensive as â€Å"too high† or â€Å"far too high† rose from 32.3% to 68.3% from people paying $10 – $14 and $15 $19 and some rose to 90% from people paying $25 or more (Fergusson et al. 1989). Patients with financial difficulties in obtaining health services opt to have a number of strategies, both active and passive, such as; late seeking behaviour of care, delay in obtaining medication and seeking financial help from GPs (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Patients frequently change their doctors even when they don’t want to. The introduction of Community Service Card (CSC) in 1992 is relatively ineffective in accessing the health provision of care. There is a high level of unmet need among CSC population. The reason for a rising unmet needs among the population group was partly due to low usage by those entitled and the stigma attached to it (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Interplay of Material, Cultural and Geographic Factors Low utilisation of health services in relation to health needs cannot be attached to cost alone. According to Barnett et al. (2003) it is also because of the interplay of factors; material, cultural and geographic factors. It was proved in a survey that MÄ ori and low-income New Zealanders have a low rate of GP utilisation given that the centres where set up to provide service in a low-income population. The health centres were there to improve access to care to MÄ ori and low-income populace. The cost for the provision of service was reduced as compared to the average cost. It was clear in the survey that financial barrier was not the reason but rather cultural values and expectations as well as the benefits from the services rendered (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). It is also important to consider the geographic factors in understanding the levels of GP utilisation. There is a strong relationship between distance and patterns of use in both hospital and GP services; it is also not surprising that there is a sub pattern to it. People with poorer population have a 30% less expenditure or budget in health as compared to the well-off population with 40% over funding as computed by the Health Funding Authority (Malcolm 1998b). It shows that the basing on the budget in each region, the number of GP available is also dependent on the budget, thus with low budget comes less number of available GP and health centres while areas with higher budget comes a larger number of GPs available (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Implications for the wider health system New Zealand research had been focused on the different patterns in GP and hospitalisation utilisation. However, there is also another reason that can be attributed to the low health status among low-income population in the access of health care services. There is a relationship between patient admission and average length of hospital stay. Reducing the average length of stay contributes in the increased rate of readmissions within the poor (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). One factor that might have an effect in the rate of readmissions among the poor is that the access to primary care is prevented by circumstances such as distance, cost and availability of the service itself. It is said that the importance of primary care is great in reducing or limiting hospitalisation (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Primary Health Organisation Model To address the problems New Zealand has in the delivery of health care and to provide equity to all, new initiatives were created. The development of primary care organisations (PHOs) created new frameworks for health service delivery and an avenue for change. Not only it involves the general practitioner and the community but it includes a wide variety of health providers to achieve the goal of giving equity in the access of health care provision. PHOs are a broad based organisation comprised of many primary care providers. These providers include midwives, iwi groups, and non-government organisations aside from General Practitioners. The new system is locally based, funds were computed through the affected population and PHOs are given an important role in formulating new public health initiatives. Partnership with MÄ ori and with Pacific communities is expected and where if needed, Ethnic group representation in the governance is allowed (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Potential Benefits of PHOs Upon the development of Primary Health Organisations, there are three potentials benefits that can be gained. One would be the likelihood of improving the population health is higher as compared to before, the rate of hospital admission will decrease and an empowerment to both the health providers and the consumer. Although after the introduction of capitation, in itself, is not an assurance of an improved population health and access to health. However, there are evidence claiming that a country with strong primary health care and a fewer barriers to healthcare accessibility have a better health outcomes (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). A better primary health care have another advantage of potentially reducing the rate of admissions in hospitals. It is an important factor in determining health outcomes in New Zealand, given the case that it has a high rate of hospital admissions. With higher rate of admissions means higher hospital expenditure for the government. Although, there is no clear relationship between access to primary care and hospital admissions, there exist evidence that shows a reduction in healthcare cost reduces Ambulatory care sensitive (ACS) admissions just like in the United States. Some studies in New Zealand back it up with data showing after the removal of patient charges for consultation; a significant decline in hospitalisation was seen (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Lastly, with the development of primary health organisations with a greater emphasis in community will have the potential in increasing social empowerment in the poorer and disadvantage populations. This is important because cultural and economic barriers influence health seeking behaviour of an individual. Moreover, with the goal of fostering a broader links between health organisations, the potential of having a more holistic and social model of health is made. It has the possibility of not only improving the access to care but also other social conditions that foster inequalities in health (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). Conclusion The development of the Primary Health Care Strategy and the recent move toward the development of PHOs in New Zealand has the potential to improve equity of access to care, reduce unnecessary hospitalisation and improve overall population health. It represents a fundamental shift in national primary health care policy away from an individual to a population focus (although this has been emerging among primary care organisations for some time), and from fee-for-service to a funding approach stressing capitation with reduced co-payments, with inter-regional distribution of funds based on population need. The potential is for a fairer system of primary health care where services will be more freely available to those in need (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). However, improved equity of access may be difficult to achieve, given the problems and risks in developing PHOs. In New Zealand these include fragmentation of providers, inadequate attention to the regional sensitivity of allocation formulas, concern over the extent to which funding should be based on individuals or areas, and the extent to which full participation of both providers and the public is secured. Given the significant additional investment by the government, PHOs will need to demonstrate not only fairer access to primary care reductions in health inequalities, but also improvements in population health overall (Barnett R. and Barnett P. 2003). . Gribben, B. (1992) Do access factors affect utilisation of general practitioners in South AucklandNew Zealand Medical Journal, 105:453-455. Barnett, J.R. and R.A. Kearns (1996) Shopping around?: Consumerism and the use of private accident and medical clinics in Auckland, New ZealandEnvironment and Planning A,28:1053-1075. Waldegrave, C., R.J. Stephens and P. Frater (1995)Most Recent Findings of the New Zealand Poverty Measurement Project, The Family Centre, Lower Hutt. Minister of Health (2001a)Minimum Requirements for Primary Health Organisations, Minister of Health, Wellington. Minister of Health (2001b)The New Zealand Health Strategy, Minister of Health, Wellington. Jamieson, K. (1998)Poverty and Hardship in Christchurch, Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.

ICT Package :: ICT Essays

Clear Problem: - Company: Doctors Surgery Relocating: Kingston Needs: To keep all the patients details on a computer data base with appropriate back up system. Real User: Dr Steer Accessibility: This is strictly confident to Dr Steer only Solution: - This is a small but established surgery but has decided to go paperless. We have grown over the years and can no longer rely on our manual papers because they are simply getting too big. The move to new premises means we can set up the ideal ICT package tailor made for our needs. 1. To keep a details of the patients. 2. To enable accurate details on the patient. 3. Easy to access it as well. Objectives: - 1. Create a patient detail list with any long term diseases or medical formalities. 2. I will use access to produce an easy program for the doctor to use. 4. To enable a quick analysis of the total number of hours worked in a week to see for eligibility of a pay rise. 5. The system is legible, we producible and at the end of the tax year can be used to make the company report and tax declaration. Analyse: - Hardware: I recommend any modern and up to date computer technology, such as Dell. They provide reliable machines with easy ability to upgrade and excellent support service. It will need to have a CD-RW and a ZIP drive to enable the data to be backed up. Software: I need a clear easy to use spreadsheet package. I feel the best is Excel. This choice is based on recommendations and research of other software. The advantages are it is simple, easy and reliable. I will use the most up to date version and Microsoft is constantly updating it. Input: The data clerk will produce and update the date every week. The data is entered via a keyboard and an accounting manager will audit the accounts monthly and do reconciliation. Output: The data entered will be shown on a TFT screen and stored to a CD or/and ZIP. This will be printed off using a laser printer and filled in an accounting folder. Back up- Strategy: The accounts will be needed to be backed up every Friday evening. This is to protect the data from being lost due to a power surge. It will be backed up on disk and be stored in a fireproof safe. Design: - Initial Design: I am going to have a sample table to put my data on. I will draw it in rough first (see enclosed) to see if my initial ideas would work. The columns are headed: Employee number First Name